A multisite feasibility randomized clinical trial of mindfulness-based resilience training for aggression, stress, and health in law enforcement officers.

BACKGROUND: Law enforcement officers (LEOs) are exposed to significant stressors that can impact their mental health, increasing risk of posttraumatic stress disorder, burnout, at-risk alcohol use, depression, and suicidality. Compromised LEO health can subsequently lead to aggression and excessive use of force. Mindfulness training is a promising approach for high-stress populations and has been shown to be effective in increasing resilience and improving mental health issues common among LEOs. METHODS: This multi-site, randomized, single-blind clinical feasibility trial was intended to establish optimal protocols and procedures for a future full-scale, multi-site trial assessing effects of mindfulness-based resilience training (MBRT) versus an attention control (stress management education [SME]) and a no-intervention control, on physiological, attentional, and psychological indices of stress and mental health. The current study was designed to enhance efficiency of recruitment, engagement and retention; optimize assessment, intervention training and outcome measures; and ensure fidelity to intervention protocols. Responsiveness to change over time was examined to identify the most responsive potential proximate and longer-term assessments of targeted outcomes. RESULTS: We observed high feasibility of recruitment and retention, acceptability of MBRT, fidelity to assessment and intervention protocols, and responsiveness to change for a variety of putative physiological and self-report mechanism and outcome measures. CONCLUSIONS: Results of this multi-site feasibility trial set the stage for a full-scale, multi-site trial testing the efficacy of MBRT on increasing LEO health and resilience, and on decreasing more distal outcomes of aggression and excessive use of force that would have significant downstream benefits for communities they serve. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03784846 . Registered on December 24th, 2018.

Stress Inoculation in Police Officers Using Virtual Reality: A Controlled Study.

Policing is a highly demanding and stressful profession. Virtual reality (VR) has emerged as a promising tool for enhancing stress management programs, including for police officers. The use of VR in combination with biosensors enables measurement of psychophysiological responses such as peripheral temperature (PT) and skin conductance level (SCL). This study investigated the psychophysiological responses of police officers exposed to a VR scenario simulating a car accident. The study included a total of 63 police officers from the Public Security Police. Participants were divided into three groups based on their police divisions: the Investigation Brigade of Traffic Accidents, the Traffic Surveillance Squad (TSS), and a control group from the Lisbon Metropolitan Command. The results indicated that the VR environment effectively induced psychophysiological arousal, particularly in less experienced officers (TSS), that is, there were significant group differences in mean SCL and PT, showing this group with higher SCL and lower PT during the VR exposure. These results support the potential of VR as a stress inoculation strategy for training police officers and highlight the complex nature of stress responses that are influenced by individual factors and psychopathology.

Psychosocial risks and their consequences on health and job satisfaction among Spanish police officers.

BACKGROUND: Police officers are exposed to risk and violence, which makes their work highly stressful. According to the Job Demand-Resource model, the working conditions of police officers may affect their health and job satisfaction. The aims of this research were to evaluate the psychosocial factors at work in a sample of municipal police officers from the Valencian Community (Spain) to identify the prevalence of psychosocial risks and their consequences and analyse the influence of psychosocial factors (resource and demands) at work on job satisfaction and health. METHODS: The Unidad de Investigación Psicosocial de la Conducta Organizacional (UNIPSICO) battery was used to evaluate the prevalence and distribution of different levels of risk and their consequences in police officers (n=103). The influence of psychosocial factors (resource and demands) at work on psychosomatic disorders and job satisfaction was examined using stepwise regression analysis. RESULTS: All considered variables showed moderate levels of psychosocial risk for the whole sample. As for the consequences of psychosocial risks, moderate levels of psychosomatic disorders and job satisfaction were also observed. Perceived stress levels and organizational stressors have a negative effect on health and job satisfaction. CONCLUSIONS: To create positive conditions for the health and well-being of police officers, real commitment is required when evaluating psychosocial risks in local police organizations and the establishment of prevention and intervention measures where psychosocial risk factors are detected.

Psychosocial risks and their consequences on health and job satisfaction among Spanish police officers / Riesgos psicosociales y sus consecuencias sobre la salud y la satisfacción laboral en policías españoles

Fundamento. La vida laboral del policía es estresante dada la exposición al riesgo y a la violencia en el trabajo. Según el Modelo de Demandas y Recursos laborales (DRL), las condiciones de trabajo de los policías pueden influir en la salud y la satisfacción laboral. Los objetivos de esta investigación fueron evaluar los factores psicosociales en el trabajo en una muestra de policías municipales de la Comunidad Valenciana (España), identificar la prevalencia de riesgos psicosociales y sus consecuencias, y analizar la influencia de los factores psicosociales (recursos y demandas) en el trabajo sobre la satisfacción laboral y la salud. Material y método. Se utilizó la Batería UNIPSICO para evaluar la prevalencia y la distribución de policías (n=103) en los diferentes niveles de riesgo y consecuencias. La influencia de los factores psicosociales (recursos y demandas) en el trabajo sobre los trastornos psicosomáticos y la satisfacción laboral se examinó mediante un análisis de regresión por pasos. Resultados. Se obtuvieron valores moderados de riesgo psicosocial en todas las variables para toda la muestra. Para las consecuencias de los riesgos psicosociales también se obtuvieron niveles moderados de trastornos psicosomáticos y satisfacción laboral. Los niveles de estrés percibidos y los estresores organizacionales tienen un efecto negativo sobre la salud y la satisfacción laboral. Conclusión. Para facilitar condiciones positivas para la salud y el bienestar de los policías, se requiere un compromiso real para la evaluación de riesgos psicosociales en las organizaciones policiales locales y para la adopción de medidas de prevención e intervención, donde se detecten factores de riesgo psicosocial. (AU)

Background. Police officers are exposed to risk and violence, which makes their work highly stressful. According to the Job Demand-Resource model, the working conditions of police officers may affect their health and job satisfaction. The aims of this research were to evaluate the psychosocial factors at work in a sample of municipal police officers from the Valencian Community (Spain) to identify the prevalence of psychosocial risks and their consequences and analyse the influence of psychosocial factors (resource and demands) at work on job satisfaction and health. Methods. The Unidad de Investigación Psicosocial de la Conducta Organizacional (UNIPSICO) battery was used to evaluate the prevalence and distribution of different levels of risk and their consequences in police officers (n=103). The influence of psychosocial factors (resource and demands) at work on psychosomatic disorders and job satisfaction was examined using stepwise regression analysis. Results. All considered variables showed moderate levels of psychosocial risk for the whole sample. As for the consequences of psychosocial risks, moderate levels of psychosomatic disorders and job satisfaction were also observed. Perceived stress levels and organizational stressors have a negative effect on health and job satisfaction. Conclusions. To create positive conditions for the health and well-being of police officers, real commitment is required when evaluating psychosocial risks in local police organizations and the establishment of prevention and intervention measures where psychosocial risk factors are detected. (AU)

Physiological Responses to Organizational Stressors Among Police Managers.

Police officers demonstrate increased risk of physical and mental health conditions due to repeated and prolonged exposure to stressful occupational conditions. Occupational stress is broken into two types: operational stress, related to the content of field duties (e.g., physical demands); and organizational stress, related to cultural and structural contexts (e.g., interpersonal relationships). Applied police research focuses on physiological activation in operational tasks as a mechanism explaining health risk and non-optimal performance outcomes. However, recent survey-based studies indicate numerous organizational stressors associated with self-reported mental health symptoms. The question of whether organizational stressors elicit significant physiological activity remains unknown. The current proof-of-concept field study tests the hypothesis that police managers will display significant physiological reactivity before, during, and after engaging in reality-based scenarios representative of stressful police management tasks developed from evidence-based pedagogical approaches. A sample of 25 training police managers (7 female, M = 16 +/- 5.3 years of experience) completed 5 reality-based scenarios, including resolving a heated conflict between colleagues, delivering negative feedback to a subordinate, and critical incident command. Significant increases in heart rate relative to rest were observed during all tasks, and in anticipation of several tasks. Greater increases in reactive heart rate were associated with longer recovery times. Sex differences and relationships between objective biological and subjective psychological measures of stress are discussed. The current findings demonstrate significant physiological responses to organizational stressors similar to levels observed during operational tasks, despite the absence of physical or aerobic exertion. Implications for police health and training are discussed.

Comparing the Validity of MMPI-3 Scores in Prehire Psychological Screenings of Male and Female Police Officer Candidates.

Psychological testing is an important component of the screening process for public safety officers. The use of standardized measures is intended to increase the objectivity of preemployment evaluations, highlighting the importance of examining tests used in these assessments for evidence of differential validity. Differential validity is indicated when a screening measure is unequally associated with, or systematically over- or under-predicts, a criterion across demographic groups. In the current study, we examined for differential validity in Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-3 (MMPI-3) scores in a sample of 527 police officer candidates (455 males, 72 females). We first calculated correlations between MMPI-3 scores and job-relevant historical variables. Next, for variable pairings that yielded at least a small effect size, regression models were estimated in a multi-group framework comparing associations between MMPI-3 scores and the historical variables across men and women. The analyses yielded statistical evidence of negligible differential validity across gender in police officer screenings. Implications of these findings and limitations of this study are discussed.

Gaze Control and Tactical Decision-Making Under Stress in Active-Duty Police Officers During a Live Use-of-Force Response.

Police officers during dynamic and stressful encounters are required to make rapid decisions that rely on effective decision-making, experience, and intuition. Tactical decision-making is influenced by the officer's capability to recognize critical visual information and estimation of threat. The purpose of the current study is to investigate how visual search patterns using cluster analysis and factors that differentiate expertise (e.g., years of service, tactical training, related experiences) influence tactical decision-making in active-duty police officers (44 active-duty police officers) during high stress, high threat, realistic use of force scenario following a car accident and to examine the relationships between visual search patterns and physiological response (heart rate). A cluster analysis of visual search variables (fixation duration, fixation location difference score, and number of fixations) produced an Efficient Scan and an Inefficient Scan group. Specifically, the Efficient Scan group demonstrated longer total fixation duration and differences in area of interests (AOI) fixation duration compared to the Inefficient Scan group. Despite both groups exhibiting a rise in physiological stress response (HR) throughout the high-stress scenario, the Efficient Scan group had a history of tactical training, improved return fire performance, had higher sleep time total, and demonstrated increased processing efficiency and effective attentional control, due to having a background of increased tactical training.

The mental health of officials who regularly examine child sexual abuse material: strategies for harm mitigation.

BACKGROUND: The current study aims to better understand the mental health and subjective well-being of investigators and forensic examiners exposed to child sexual abuse material (CSAM) by examining which components of this work are associated with elevated mental health conditions and decreased well-being, as well as the intra-personal and organizational variables that may mitigate harm and improve well-being. METHODS: Police investigators, forensic examiners, and others connected with the criminal justice system from across the United States who were exposed to CSAM as part of their professions (N = 500) completed an anonymous online survey. Participants were recruited through connections with the National Criminal Justice Training Center. RESULTS: Duration, frequency, amount, and content of CSAM exposure was not related to poorer mental health with the exception of exposure to violent CSAM which was related to elevated post-traumatic stress symptoms. Several agency-level practices and policies, such as the availability of an Officer Wellness Program and more frequently knowing the final case resolution, were related to better mental health and well-being. Harm mitigation strategies, such as talking to other officers investigating the case and taking breaks from the material being viewed, were also related to better mental health. CONCLUSIONS: Findings indicate that police agencies have options for implementing agency-level procedures and practices that have the potential to reduce the negative impact of CSAM investigations. Additionally, many investigators use strategies that are correlated with greater well-being, suggesting opportunities for improving training programs.

Empowering law enforcement officers to engage effectively with individuals in crisis.

As first responders with a duty to protect the safety of civilians, law enforcement officers are required to carry firearms. Over the course of a career, officers are exposed to multiple traumatic events and are required to make rapid decisions regarding safety. In the last few years, the use of deadly force by law enforcement officers has become a public concern. Persons with untreated mental illness have a comparatively higher risk than most for deadly outcomes in crisis situations. The purpose of this manuscript is to describe policies and programs that have been developed and implemented by teams that include psychiatric mental health nurse practitioners to help law enforcement officers recognize and interact effectively with persons in crisis. The same programs help officers understand the effects of severe stress and trauma on emotional, behavioral, and cognitive functioning, and provide support, encouragement, and access for officers who need help.

How does it feel? An exploration of neurobiological and clinical correlates of alexithymia in trauma-exposed police-officers with and without PTSD.

Background: Alexithymia, an inability to recognise one's emotions, has been associated with trauma-exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Previous research suggests involvement of the oxytocin system, and socio-emotional neural processes. However, the paucity of neurobiological research on alexithymia, particularly in trauma-exposed populations, warrants further investigation.Objective: Explore associations between alexithymia, endogenous oxytocin levels, and socio-emotional brain function and morphometry in a trauma-exposed sample.Method: Dutch trauma-exposed police officers with (n = 38; 18 females) and without PTSD (n = 40; 20 females) were included. Alexithymia was assessed with the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20). Endogenous salivary oxytocin was assessed during rest, using radioimmunoassay. Amygdala and insula reactivity to socio-emotional stimuli were assessed with functional MRI, amygdala and insula grey matter volume were derived using Freesurfer.Results: Alexithymia was higher in PTSD patients compared to trauma-exposed controls (F(1,70) = 54.031, p < .001). Within PTSD patients, alexithymia was positively associated with PTSD severity (ρ(36) = 0.497, p = .002). Alexithymia was not associated with childhood trauma exposure (ß = 0.076, p = .509), police work-related trauma exposure (ß = -0.107, p = .355), oxytocin levels (ß = -0.164, p = .161), insula (ß = -0.170, p = .158) or amygdala (ß = -0.175, p = .135) reactivity, or amygdala volume (ß = 0.146, p = .209). Insula volume was positively associated with alexithymia (ß = 0.222, p = .016), though not significant after multiple testing corrections. Bayesian analyses supported a lack of associations.Conclusions: No convincing neurobiological correlates of alexithymia were observed with any of the markers included in the current study. Yet, the current study confirmed high levels of alexithymia in PTSD patients, independent of trauma-exposure, substantiating alexithymia's relevance in the clinical phenotype of PTSD.

Little is known about neurobiological correlates of alexithymia in trauma-exposed and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) populations.In this highly trauma-exposed sample, alexithymia was associated with PTSD symptoms, but not with childhood or adult trauma exposure, suggesting alexithymia is not a direct consequence of trauma.Alexithymia was not convincingly associated with salivary oxytocin, amygdala and insula reactivity to socio-emotional stimuli, amygdala or insula grey matter volume.

Efectos de las intervenciones basadas en mindfulness sobre el estrés laboral en agentes de policía: revisión sistemática / Effects of mindfulness-based interventions on occupational stress in police officers: a systematic review

Objetivo: Describir los efectos de las intervenciones basadas en mindfulness sobre el estrés laboral en agentes de policía. Material y Métodos: Se realizó una revisión sistemática basada en la literatura publicada desde el 2014 hasta diciembre de 2021. Se evaluó la calidad mediante el cuestionario CONSORT y TREND y el nivel de evidencia y grado de recomendación mediante la herramienta SIGN. Resultados: Se obtuvieron 80 referencias que al aplicar los criterios de inclusión y exclusión dieron como resultado 10 estudios. 7 estudios encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas en los niveles de estrés tras las intervenciones del mindfulness. Conclusiones: Los resultados demuestran la eficacia de las intervenciones basadas en mindfulness sobre la disminución del estrés laboral en agentes de policía. Estas intervenciones confieren además beneficios como la mejoría de la calidad de sueño y la disminución del consumo de alcohol (AU)

Objective: To describe the effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions on occupational stress in police officers. Material and Methods: A systematic review was carried out based on the literature published from 2014 to december 2021. Quality was assessed using the CONSORT and TREND questionnaires and the level of evidence and degree of recommendation using the SIGN tool. Results: 80 references were identified and 10 studies met the inclusion and exclusion criteria. 7 studies reported statistically significant differences in stress levels after the mindfulness intervention. Conclusions: The results of this systematic review demonstrate the effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions in reducing occupational stress in police officers. These interventions also confer protective benefits such as improved sleep quality and decreased alcohol consumption (AU)

Factores psicosociales de riesgo y burnout en policías: un análisis de redes / Psychosocial risks factors and burnout in police officers: a network analysis

El estrés laboral crónico ha sido identificado como uno de los riesgos laborales más importantes que afecta a la salud mental de los agentes de policía. Existen ciertos factores psicosociales que incrementan el estrés laboral en la policía y que, a largo plazo, desencadenan síntomas compatibles con el burnout. En este trabajo se ha utilizado una muestra integrada por 323 policías para valorar la relación que se establece entre los factores psicosociales de riesgo y la probabilidad de experimentar síntomas compatibles con el burnout. Las respuestas de los participantes al MBI-GS y al F-PSICO (versión 4.0) fueron examinadas utilizando análisis de redes. Los resultados muestran que existen redes de factores psicosociales de riesgo más cohesionadas cuando los niveles de cinismo y agotamiento emocional son más elevados. Además, se observa mayor nivel de burnout asociados con una baja autonomía, altas demandas psicológicas, conflictos en el desempeño de rol y un bajo apoyo social percibido. Los resultados son discutidos en términos de su implicación teórica y de su utilidad práctica frente al diseño de entornos de trabajo más saludables, así como frente a la intervención psicológica.(AU)

Chronic work stress has been identified as one of the most important occupational hazards affecting the mental health of police officers. There are certain psychosocial factors that increase job stress in the police and, in the long term, trigger symptoms compatible with burnout. In this work, a sample made up of 323 police officers has been used to assess the relationship established between psychosocial risk factors and the probability of experiencing symptoms compatible with burnout. Participant responses to the MBI-GS and F-PSICO (version 4.0) were examined using network analysis. The results show that there are more cohesive networks of psychosocial risk factors when the levels of cynicism and emotional exhaustion are higher. In addition, a higher level of burnout is observed associated with low autonomy, high psychological demands, conflicts in role performance, and low perceived social support. The results are discussed in terms of their theoretical implication and their practical utility in the design of healthier work environments, as well as in psychological intervention.(AU)

Examining antecedents of organizational citizenship behavior: An empirical study in Indonesian police context.

Police reform in the Mobile Brigade Corps unit in Indonesia, which seeks to break away from militaristic elements, has not been fully implemented optimally. This is reflected in the lack of implementation of human values in serving the community. The extra effort of officers in encouraging community service based on human values can be realized through Organizational Citizenship Behavior which is not only directed at fellow officers, but also towards organizations in the context of community service. Based on Social Exchange Theory, this study aims to investigate the mechanism of strengthening Organizational Citizenship Behavior in the context of the Police Mobile Brigade Corps with the support of Empowering Leadership, Psychological Empowerment, and Job Satisfaction. Using a quantitative approach, this study distributed online questionnaires to 395 Mobile Brigade Corps officers. Furthermore, this study analyzes the data using Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation Modeling. The test results show that Empowering Leadership can strengthen Organizational Citizenship Behavior. In addition, this study reveals the mediating role of Psychological Empowerment and Job Satisfaction in the influence of Empowering Leadership on Organizational Citizenship Behavior. With these findings, the Police Mobile Brigade Corps needs to improve the competence of officers through training and development efforts so that officers feel psychologically empowered and have job satisfaction. On the other hand, Mobile Brigade Corps needs to encourage leaders to provide opportunities for officers to participate in decision making and recognize their contributions to work.

Validation and Psychometric Properties of the German Operational and Organizational Police Stress Questionnaires.

CONTEXT: Working in the police force is an operationally and organizationally stressful job. Suitable psychometric tools are needed to detect and study the psychosocial risks of these professionals. The original version contains 40 items, which may be too long for clinical use or as a research control measure. The main aim of this study is to validate the Police Stress Questionnaire (PSQ) in German. The secondary objective is to validate a shorter version. METHOD: After translation and counter translation of the PSQ-G by a committee of experts, 10 participants pre-tested the comprehension of an intermediate version, allowing the development of a final version that was submitted to a psychometric validation plan with 2314 German-speaking officers. Structure, reliability, and convergent, divergent, and discriminant validities were tested for each sample. RESULTS: The German version of the PSQ performed well psychometrically. We have created a short version of 14 items with good psychometric properties, 7 items for each subscale: operational stressors and organizational stressors. CONCLUSION: This study validated a German version of the PSQ and provides a reliable measure of stress processes in the police force. A short version is now available.

[Experiences of (Potentially) Traumatizing Deployments and Posttraumatic Stress in Police Officers - An Exploratory Survey of Early Career Police Officers]. / Erleben (potenziell) traumatischer Einsätze und (partielle) posttraumatische Belastungsstörung bei Polizeibeamt:innen ­ eine explorative Befragung von Berufsanfänger:innen.

BACKGROUND: As part of their career police officers are faced with traumatic events on a regular basis and are at a higher risk of developing PTSD compared to the general population. The aim of this study was to examine if and how many early career police officers already experienced potentially traumatizing situations and how many conform to either subsyndromal or complete PTSD criteria. Further subject of interest was if the officers know the concept of psychosocial emergency care for first responders (PSNV-E) and if such support is made use of. METHOD: N=221 early career police officers were assessed via an online-survey about their posttraumatic stress symptoms. RESULTS: More than half of the participants (n=121) reported having experienced at least one traumatic deployment. PTSD prevalence in this group was at 1.7%, an additional 14.9% showed partial PTSD. One fifth did not know about the PSNV-E concept. CONCLUSION: Police officers are confronted with a range of extremely stressful events early in their career leading to first symptoms of PTSD in some of them. Early prevention strategies as well as the identification of those affected for secondary prevention is of very high relevance for long term mental health.

Caring for a "Blue" Population: Addressing Priorities of the Officer Safety and Wellness Group in Nurse Practitioner Practice.

Increased public concern over policing and the psychological impact of trauma-associated events by first responders have highlighted a critical need to improve the availability of mental health and wellness resources for law enforcement officers. The national Officer Safety and Wellness Group prioritized mental health, alcohol use, fatigue, and body weight/poor nutrition as targets for safety and wellness initiatives. Departmental culture will need to change from silence and fear-driven hesitancy to a culture of openness and support. Increased education, openness, and support for mental health will likely reduce stigma and improve access to care. Psychiatric-mental health nurse practitioners and other advanced practice nurses who wish to work with law enforcement officers should be aware of the specific health risks and standards of care that are summarized in this article. [Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 61(10), 13-18.].

How the "Black criminal" stereotype shapes Black people's psychological experience of policing: Evidence of stereotype threat and remaining questions.

Cultural stereotypes that link Black race to crime in the United States originated with and are perpetuated by policies that result in the disproportionate criminalization and punishment of Black people. The scientific record is replete with evidence that these stereotypes impact perceivers' perceptions, information processing, and decision-making in ways that produce more negative criminal legal outcomes for Black people than White people. However, relatively scant attention has been paid to understanding how situations that present a risk of being evaluated through the lens of crime-related stereotypes also directly affect Black people. In this article, I consider one situation in particular: encounters with police. I draw on social psychological research on stereotype threat generally as well as the few existing studies of crime-related stereotype threat specifically to illuminate how the cultural context creates psychologically distinct experiences of police encounters for Black people as compared to White people. I further consider the potential ramifications of stereotype threat effects on police officers' judgments and treatment of Black people as well as for Black people's safety and well-being in other criminal legal contexts and throughout their lives. Finally, I conclude with a call for increased scholarly attention to crime-related stereotype threat and the role it plays in contributing to racial disparities in policing outcomes, particularly with regard to diverse racial, ethnic, and intersectional identities and personal vulnerability factors, and the systemic changes that might mitigate its deleterious effects. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Posttraumatic stress disorder in Belgian police officers: prevalence and the effects of exposure to traumatic events.

Background: Police officers are at considerable risk of developing posttraumatic symptoms because they frequently encounter violent or emotionally disturbing incidents. We investigate experiences with potentially traumatic events (PTE), traumatic exposure, and the prevalence of probable posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), complex PTSD and subclinical PTSD in a sample of Belgian police officers.Methods: In total, 1,465 police officers from 15 Belgian Local Police zones participated in a web-based survey, consisting of three segments: evaluating experiences with a list of 29 PTE, assessing if any of these PTE accounted for traumatic exposure, and evaluating 1-month probable PTSD, complex PTSD and subclinical PTSD prevalence using the International Trauma Questionnaire (ITQ).Results: Police officers frequently experience a wide range of PTE. A large majority of 93.0% reports traumatic exposure. Assessment with ITQ shows a 1-month prevalence of 5.87% for probable PTSD and 1.50% for probable complex PTSD, while an additional 7.58% report subclinical PTSD. No demographic variables influenced PTSD prevalence. Cumulative PTE experiences in itself did not predict PTSD, while the characteristics of certain PTE did entail a higher prevalence of probable PTSD and subclinical PTSD.Discussion: This study is the first to evaluate experiences with PTE, traumatic exposure and 1-month prevalence of probable PTSD, complex PTSD, and subclinical PTSD in Belgian police officers. Police officers are frequently confronted with a broad variety of PTE, and a large majority reports traumatic exposure. The 1-month prevalence of probable PTSD is significantly higher compared to previous international research in the general population, but lower than in similar international research involving police officers. In this study, cumulative PTE experiences in itself did not reliably predict PTSD, while the characteristics of certain PTE did. Posttraumatic symptoms are an important mental health challenge in Belgian police.

This study is the first to evaluate experiences with PTE, traumatic exposure and 1-month prevalence of probable PTSD, complex PTSD, and subclinical PTSD in Belgian police officers.Results show that police officers are frequently confronted with a broad variety of PTE, and a large majority reports traumatic exposure.The 1-month prevalence of probable PTSD is significantly higher compared to previous international research in the general population, but lower than in similar international research involving police officers.In this study, cumulative PTE experiences in itself did not reliably predict PTSD, while the characteristics of certain PTE did.Posttraumatic symptoms are an important mental health challenge in Belgian police.

Mental health of public safety personnel: Developing a model of operational, organizational, and personal factors in public safety organizations.

The work of public safety personnel (PSP) such as police officers, firefighters, correctional officers, and paramedics, as well as other PSP, makes them vulnerable to psychological injuries, which can have profound impacts on their families and the communities they serve. A multitude of complex operational, organizational, and personal factors contribute to the mental health of PSP; however, to date the approach of the research community has been largely to explore the impacts of these factors separately or within single PSP professions. To date, PSP employers have predominantly focused on addressing the personal aspects of PSP mental health through resiliency and stress management interventions. However, the increasing number of psychological injuries among PSPs and the compounding stressors of the COVID-19 pandemic demonstrate a need for a new approach to the study of PSP mental health. The following paper discusses the importance of adopting a broader conceptual approach to the study of PSP mental health and proposes a novel model that highlights the need to consider the combined impacts of operational, organizational, and personal factors on PSP mental health. The TRi-Operational-Organizational-Personal Factor Model (TROOP) depicts these key factors as three large pieces of a larger puzzle that is PSP mental health. The TROOP gives working language for public safety organizations, leaders, and researchers to broadly consider the mental health impacts of public safety work.

Psychosocial risk and protective factors associated with burnout in police officers: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: The specific factors that may influence burnout levels in police officers are not yet clear. Our aim was to systematically identify the psychosocial risk and protective factors associated with burnout among police officers. METHODS: This systematic review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA). A protocol was registered in PROSPERO. A search strategy was applied to Medline via OvidSP, PsycInfo, Scopus and Web of Science. The quality assessment entailed the use of the CASP checklist for cohort studies. The data was reported through a narrative synthesis. RESULTS: After removing studies based on the selection criteria, 41 studies were included in this review. The findings were synthesized under the following subheadings: socio-demographic factors; organisational factors; operational factors; personality variables and coping strategies. Organisational and operational factors were found to be the most predominant risk factors for burnout. Personality variables and coping strategies appeared as both risk and protective factors. Socio-demographic factors were weak in explaining burnout. LIMITATIONS: Most studies are from high-income countries. Not all used the same burnout measurement tool. All relied on self-reported data. Since 98 % had a cross-sectional design, causal inferences could not be made. CONCLUSIONS: Burnout, despite being strictly defined as an occupational phenomenon, is related to factors outside of this context. Future research should focus on examining the reported associations by using more robust designs. More attention must be paid to police officers' mental health by investing in developing strategies to mitigate adverse factors and maximise the effects of protective factors.